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A memorandum on the Nutritive Value of Milk by the Advisory Committee on Nutrition appointed by the Minister of Health and the Secretary of State for Scotland has now been published with a prefatory note by Sir Kingsley Wood and Sir Godfrey Collins. The Chairman of the Advisory Committee is Lord Luke, and the members include Professor Cathcart, Sir F. Gowland Hopkins, Professor Mellanby and Sir John Boyd Orr. Its terms of reference are “To inquire into the facts, quantitative and qualitative, in relation to the diet of the people and to report as to any changes herein which appear desirable in the light of modern advances in the knowledge of nutrition.” The memorandum explains the high value of milk as an article of food. Analysis of its composition shows that milk contains protein of high nutritive value, energy‐giving nutrients, the known essential vitamins and many mineral elements and apart from its chemical composition it derived value from other properties such as easy digestibility. Many investigations have been made which justify the belief that the general health of the community, and especially of children, would be improved, and the incidence of disease, including rickets, diminished, if the present consumption of liquid milk, averaging about 0.4 pint per head per day, could be increased to about a pint. Milk has few disadvantages as an article of diet. For infants, after breast‐feeding has ceased, it should form the bulk of the diet, with any necessary supplements to furnish iron and vitamins C and D. After infancy milk is not a complete food but a very important item in diet, particularly for children, who should be given one to two pints a day, and for expectant and nursing mothers, for whom about two pints a day are desirable. Other adults, who need milk especially for the sake of its calcium and animal protein, should have at least half a pint a day. Milk is unfortunately liable to contamination by disease‐producing bacteria and its heating by suitable methods such as pasteurisation has important advantages in making it safe for human consumption from this point of view. Moreover, when milk is treated by heat, little significant change is known to occur in its nutritive properties, and such deficiencies as may be caused can readily be made good. It is therefore reasonable to assume that raw milk incorporated in other cooked articles of diet, such as bread and puddings, retains most of its nutritional properties. The report also calls attention to the degrees of nutritive value possessed by various milk products, especially separated milk. The memorandum is entitled “The Nutritive Value of Milk” and can be obtained (price 3d.) direct from H.M. Stationery Office or through any bookseller.

It is well known that the pharmaceutical industry produces enormous amounts of documentation for research, development and commercial purposes, some of it governed by legislation, other parts not. This paper attempts to summarise how one particular company, Glaxo Group Research Ltd., (GGR), meets the legislative requirements with respect to scientific documentation and how it is endeavouring to organise its documentation to meet the current and future needs of its users.

Vitamin A has been found to occur both as such and in the form of several precursors, and rather than try to coin one word to cover several substances we continue to use the alphabetical designation, with or without mention of precursors, or we say vitamin A value. In addition to its many other functions in our bodies, vitamin A has been found to be immediately essential to vision, a fact effectively used in the introductory summary of the Federal volume “Food and Life.” Vitamin B has been differentiated into thiamin, riboflavin, nicotinic acid, pantothenic acid, and pyridoxine, all now structurally identified, while still other possibilities are under investigation. Thiamin prevents and cures some of the most prevalent of the nerve diseases both of the Orient and of our Western World; and as it aids a fundamental intermediate step in the nutritional chemistry of all of our organs and tissues, it is proving helpful in a surprising diversity of ills. Nicotinic acid—a substance not nutritionally related to nicotine, and until lately little more than a laboratory curiosity— has been found dramatically potent in the cure of the conspicuous inflammation of the skin (and tongue) which gives the name to the disease pellagra which has been extremely prevalent in our Southern States; and which may perhaps afflict other regions and other countries to a larger extent than is recognised. Few discoveries could be more striking than that of the potency of this simple and inexpensive substance in the prevention and cure of such a scourge as pellagra. Yet it remains to be said that when the typical pellagrin has been cured of his pellagra by means of nicotinic acid alone, he needs something more to make him a fully healthy man. The previous diet of the poor pellagrin has usually contained so little of foods other than grain products, fats and sweets as to make his bodily condition that of a multiple nutritional deficiency instead of a “single” or “simple” one. Clinical treatment with the pure vitamins, separately and in combination, shows that the typical pellagrin probably needs riboflavin almost as much as he needs nicotinic acid, and often needs thiamin also, while in only less degree his “one‐sided” food supply is likely to have involved other shortages as well as these three. Good diet cures all of these deficiencies at once, and renders unnecessary the further investigation of the frequency in the pellagrous population of shortages other than those of nicotinic acid, riboflavin, and thiamin. It is believed that if these three vitamins were regularly and adequately added to white flour and to the corresponding products of corn, illness would be reduced and the efficiency of our people improved; while there would still be a higher goal ahead to be reached through better understanding and appreciation of what constitutes a well balanced dietary or food supply, and what it can do for one's health and efficiency. In the case of the antiscorbutic vitamin the new world has done much to repay its debt to Europe. The old world got the potato from the new, and with year‐round availability of potatoes scurvy became relatively rare. Also, it was an American physician who first clearly set forth the view that the antiscorbutic property of “fresh” food is due to a definite substance; and an American chemist who first identified this substance now called interchangeably ascorbic acid or vitamin C. Another of this rapid series of dis‐coveries was the finding of a vitamin since differentiated into several, the vitamins D, preventive of rickets which had recently been called the most prevalent of all diseases outside of the tropics. Any one of such discoveries of nutritional means for the cure and prevention of previously baffling diseases might alone have made this generation memorable in the history of the medical sciences and of human progress. Not only did these discoveries open men's eyes to a broader and clearer view of their ills: that not every disease is to be explained in terms of the presence of something injurious, because several are now seen to be due (instead) to a lack or shortage of something nutritionally essential. In addition, these discoveries led to a further and more constructive advance. Even while the chemical identification of the earlier‐discovered of the vitamins was still in progress, means of measuring them through their effects had been worked out and much active and fruitful research was in progress upon such quantitative problems as, In what relative abundance do these substances occur in different types of foods and elsewhere in nature? How much is required in nutrition under different conditions?, and How liberal a nutritional intake of each yields best results in the long view which considers the whole lifetime and successive generations? Laboratory research upon problems of amounts or proportions of nutritional intakes has also gained much through the clear recognition of the scientific value of the use of two kinds of experimental variable: (1) the individual chemical factor; and (2) the actual article of food as produced by nature or agriculture and consumed in everyday life. The chairman of the League of Nations' mixed committee on nutrition reduced the problem of food supply to its simplest terms when he said that what is needed is, “Not only enough food but also enough of the right kinds of food.” In the nature of things the “protective” foods must usually be more expensive, calorie‐for‐calorie, than the more abundant “fuel” foods such as the chief grain crops. Thus for most low‐income families at all times, and for greater proportions of the people during food shortages such as accompanied and followed the first World War, and now threatens the world again, a persistently outstanding problem is, What proportion of protective food is needed so to “balance” a dietary or food supply as to permit the full development and exercise of the innate capacities of those subsisting upon it? Twenty years of experimentation in the field that this question suggests, with large numbers of laboratory animals continued throughout the entire lifetimes of successive generations under the standards of control characteristic of research in the exact sciences, have brought accurately measured objective evidence that there is an important distinction between the merely adequate and the optimal in nutrition; and that the difference between the minimal‐adequate and the optimal levels is much greater for some nutritional factors than for others.

The existing literature on fatness has critically discussed meanings and morals associated with body weight and explored people’s experiences of weight loss attempts. However, little attention has been paid to the practices of dieting – how it is ‘done’. Based on an interview study involving 31 participants, who shared their self-tracking experience of using the MyFitnessPal calorie counting app, we focus on the practices of ‘doing’ calories. First, we discuss the practices of temporality of logging food, showing that the use of MyFitnessPal not only has to be fitted into daily routines but can also transform them. Then, we look at the practices of precision or users’ various ways of turning the ‘messiness’ of food into precise numbers. Lastly, we explore users’ practices of adjustments – their attitudes to adherence to their daily calorie goal and ways of dealing with going above it. Based on our findings we suggest calorie counting is not a straightforward data collection, but one that involves constant practical strategies and negotiations, and can both influence and be influenced by other everyday practices.

Mr. H H. Bagnall, B.Sc., F.I.C., Public Analyst for the City of Birmingham, comments in his annual report on the work done at the City laboratory and on the still apparent need for standards and definitions of food, and of legislation to enforce their application in manufacture or in shops. Of the 5,472 samples taken in the city under the Sale of Food and Drugs Acts 4 per cent. were found to be adulterated, but he observes that misdescription of articles of food is much more common than actual adulteration. The number of samples taken during the year was larger, and the variety greater, than in any previous year. About 140 different varieties of foods and drugs were examined, and few, if any, foods were not sampled. It was reassuring to learn that the Minister of Health was considering the introduction of legislation on the lines of the recommendations submitted in 1934 by the Departmental Committee which enquired into the working of the law as to the composition and description of articles of food other than milk. Ice‐cream was a case in point. In fifty‐one samples taken, the fat content varied between less than 2 per cent. and 19 per cent. Roughly, the samples were of two classes. Those containing less than 4 per cent. were bought mainly from carts in the streets of parks, and were probably the products of smaller makers; those with more than 8 per cent. were manufactured on a large scale by a few well‐known firms. “It is obvious something is wrong here,” Mr. Bagnall reports. “Apart from any question of price, ice cream is, or should be, a valuable article of food, and the purchaser should have some means of knowing what to expect when he asks for it. At the moment he may get a substance which approximates to frozen custard (not made with eggs !) or he may get a really first‐class product containing a considerable amount of cream. The position is similar with respect to a number of other products, particularly compounded articles; and the beneficial effect of legislation in such matters is clearly shown in the case of condensed and dried milks. This kind of governmental interference with manufacture used to be thought of as grandmotherly legislation; but, when one remembers the sort of statement, bearing no relation to the contents, that used to appear on tins of condensed milk, one cannot but feel that there may be some virtue in these departures from laisser‐faire methods. At any rate, no one would wish to return to the old haphazard days when condensed milk was simply what the manufacturers chose to make it. It is curious that the law is far more careful that the composition of feeding stuffs sold for the use of cattle should be made known to the purchaser than that articles sold for human consumption should be sold under a guarantee of quality. If I buy, say, cotton cake for feeding cows, the vendor is bound to give me an invoice stating the amounts of oil, protein and fibre contained in it, and severe penalties are entailed if false statements are made. If I buy an infant's food, however, there is no compulsion on the part of the maker to give particulars regarding its composition. In fact, the label may contain statements entirely at variance with the analysis, but which, nevertheless, are of too vague a character to become the subjects of police court proceedings. It is surely as important that the mother of a child should know something of the composition of the food she uses as that a farmer should know the food value of his cattle cakes, and it is to be hoped that legislation on such matters may not be unduly delayed. The misdescription of articles of food is a much more common thing than adulteration. Under modern conditions of inspection and sampling, it simply does not pay manufacturers and retailers to risk the cruder forms of adulteration and substitution, but the wide use of advertising as an aid to sales, often leads to the use of exaggerated statements regarding the quality and food value of articles of diet. We are all familiar with the extraordinary claims put forward on behalf of particular foods of well‐known composition which seek to show that they possess unique properties not shared by other similar foods. It is often impossible for the food analyst to check such statements, and the public is deceived into thinking that a superior article is being obtained. Often it is only in the advertisements relating to the article in question that one finds these exaggerated statements, and when a tin or packet is bought it is found that the label gives a much milder description of the contents. Under the present law only statements appearing on the label can be made the subject of legal proceedings. It is desirable that false claims appearing in advertisements should also be brought within the scope of food and drug legislation.” During the year a number of samples of pasteurised milk were examined by the “phosphatase test.” Of 112 samples, fifty‐eight were efficiently pasteurised; in thirty‐six cases some technical error had occurred during the process, such as imperfect temperature or time control, or a small admission of raw milk; and in the remaining eighteen cases there was evidence of gross negligence. The samples were taken at selected times and places thought likely to yield abnormal figures, so that too much weight should not be given to the fact that about 48 per cent. of the samples did not pass the test.”

In this chapter, we draw on our study involving interviews with Australians who identify as current self-trackers to discuss why and how they monitor themselves. Our approach for analysing self-tracking practices is based on a sociomaterial perspective, viewing enactments of voluntary self-tracking as shifting heterogeneous assemblages, bringing together diverse actors who are both human and non-human. We use vignettes to illustrate the ways in which our participants enacted self-tracking and to identify some of the diverse meanings and motivations that mediate decisions to self-track and resultant uses of the information thus generated. We found that a varied range of self-tracking practices were taken up by our interviewees, including not only digital devices and methods, but also recording their details using pen-and-paper, or simply maintaining mental awareness and using memory. We identified several agential capacities in our participants’ accounts of why and how they monitor themselves. These capacities are interrelated, but can be loosely grouped under the headings of ‘self-improvement’, ‘exerting control’ and ‘identifying patterns and achieving goals’. They are motivators and facilitators of monitoring practices. The broader sociocultural contexts in which monitoring of the body/self is undertaken were also revealed in the participants’ accounts. These include ideas about the moral virtues of self-responsibility and the individual management of life circumstances to avoid chaos and risk, and the notion that monitoring practices can successfully achieve these virtues.

Full curriculum-based Venture Creation Programmes (VCPs) are a relatively new and potentially underutilised form of degree programme in which students explore the on-going creation of a new venture as a primary aspect of their formal study. The highly experiential nature of VCPs has the potential to meet the calls of researchers and policymakers for students to actively participate in and control their own learning for enterprise and entrepreneurship. However, research into VCP's remains limited which constrains their development. The purpose of this paper is, therefore, to review the literature surrounding VCPs in order to investigate the current research and explore areas for further study to support the development of these courses.

A systematic literature review was conducted in order to find and explore literature around VCPs, defined here as credit-bearing whole programmes of study, focused on learning for entrepreneurship, with the creation of a real-life business venture as an integral part of the learning experience, on which completion of the programme is dependent. First, academic literature published in peer-reviewed journals was collected through a systematic search. In parallel with this, academic colleagues working in this space were contacted for recommendations of literature and for information on work in progress. This led to additional emerging work being discovered that is primarily being presented at conferences. A further general Internet search was conducted to find non-academic information, reports and literature relating to VCP practice.

Four themes were explored covering the entire student journey (1) application and recruitment; (2) teaching, learning and assessment; (3) development of entrepreneurial identity; and (4) entrepreneurial outcomes. The literature presented in the paper suggests that VCPs can meet calls to provide an innovative curriculum based on experiential learning principles. VCPs can provide a positive learning experience in addition to leading to actual business start-up during the degree or after graduation.

This paper presents a comprehensive review of literature focusing on VCPs. Recommendations are made for further research. A key question remains: if full VCPs have the potential to enhance learning, produce positive business outcomes, and address policy calls, why are there so few known VCPs at universities around the world?

Heat treatment, in view of later knowledge, is seen to have other effects than to destroy or lower the vitality of micro‐organisms initially present; there are the more obvious changes of flavour and of consistency brought about by the partial cooking, but there are also the possible lowering of the vitamin potency and the still more subtle changes in the salts which may, after heat treatment, be rendered less available than in the raw product. The importance of these considerations cannot be too much stressed when it is remembered that heat treatment is, generally speaking, an inherent stage in the process of canning. It is the heat treatment which preserves the goods, the sealing of the can being merely a means of prevent re‐contamination. The chemist, no less than the physiologist, has been much concerned with the changes in foods caused by heat treatment as a method of preservation, and, as a result of his investigation, there is now a better understanding of the changes which take place, with a consequent improvement in the methods of processing. For a number of years, however, this country, in common with many others, has relied, in so far as its supplies of meat are concerned, on products preserved by “cold,” and the freezing of beef, the chilling of mutton, have made available to us the cattle of the Argentine and the sheep of New Zealand. Initially the processes employed were crude, the post‐mortem changes were imperfectly understood, conditions of storage, before, during and after shipment, were haphazard, and the methods of defrosting far from scientific. How far the methods have advanced, and to what extent the scientist has been concerned in the elucidation of the many problems, will be realised from the reports of the Food Investigation Board. It is not suggested that all the advance is due to the work of the Low Temperature Station a Cambridge—much has been done in other countries‐but the investigations carried out by the scientists a this station have been fundamental. Food producers in America were the first to realise the importance of the latest development in freezing, the advent of the “ Quick Freezing Processes ” marking a distinct advance in technique. When cellular tissue is normally frozen and subsequently defrosted, rupture of the cells may have occurred and the structure of the substance consequently partially broken down. When, however, the tissue is quickly brought down to a very low temperature, it is found that in many cases this breakdown in tissue does not take place. These principles have been applied to commercial installations, and fish, meat, fruit and vegetables so treated show on defrosting remarkably little change in character. Preservation by desiccation is a method employed for certain materials with great success. Sun‐drying of fruits (sultanas and dates, to quote but two) and the sun‐drying of cereal products such as macaroni is still practised. An important industry concerned with the drying of milk has developed in most milk‐producing countries, whilst dried eggs and dried egg‐albumin form important items of commerce. It is obvious that the object of concentrating such substances as fruit juices, milk and vegetables and animal liquid extracts is ideally to reduce the water content and obtain a product which, when the water is ultimately restored, gives a solution or material having the original taste, aroma and food value. The effect of heat is often, however, to change these characteristics, and although by the use of a vacuum the temperature to which the substance is submitted is lowered, changes still take place, and much of the aroma depending on volatile constituents is lost. To a very great extent this has been overcome by a method of desiccation which is essentially partial freezing, a method which has not yet received much publicity as it has only lately emerged from the experimental stage. The practical application of this principle is due to Dr. G. A. Krause, of Munich, who has invented and designed a dual process of concentration. In this process the liquid is first concentrated by freezing out water as ice, which is removed by mechanical separation in a centrifuge. By ingenious mechanical and regenerative devices this process has been made extremely efficient, the losses being only 1–2 per cent. of the original juice, although the efficiency is not maintained when the solids‐content of the product has been raised to 40–50 per cent. This liquid is then further concentrated by evaporation at a low temperature, about 10°–15° C. The differential evaporation of water as compared with the aromatic flavour constituents occurs because the removal of water as vapour at this temperature depends solely on the rate of diffusion of the molecules into the gas space. As water has a small molecule compared with the large molecules of the esters, ethers and alcohols of the flavouring substances, it escapes more readily ; the conditions of evaporation as given in the patent are all designed to aid this escape. A reduction in pressure may be used to speed up the process without interfering with the differential diffusion, and the provision of an atmosphere of small molecules (e.g., hydrogen) also has the same effect. A large surface for the evaporation is made by spreading the liquid as a thin continuously renewed film. The condenser is situated very near the evaporating liquid to remove the water molecules quickly (a distance of 3 cm. is the maximum diffusion path). The atmosphere may be circulated or disturbed to hasten the diffusion and, most ingenious of all, it may be blown towards the evaporating liquid when, if a velocity is used just greater than that of the heavy molecules leaving a liquid surface, the loss of flavour may be entirely eliminated while the rate of water evaporation is only reduced by 10 per cent. By these means a concentrate containing as much as 65 per cent. solids and capable of storage without deterioration at ordinary temperatures may be prepared, and 80 per cent. of the original vitamins retained. The use of refrigeration in the preservation of food has necessitated the use of refrigerated transport to complete the links between producer, manufacturer, retailer and customer. The variety of commodities and the different conditions they need create varying demands on the methods of insulating and refrigerating transport vehicles. The British railways have 4,000 refrigerated railway vans, and such vans, containing perishable produce, came regularly to England from Austria and Italy by way of the train ferries. These vans are designed for fairly high temperatures, 35–40° F., and long hauls, and use ice as a refrigerant. At the other end of the scale is the road vehicle, which may have a temperature as low as 0° F., but is only on its journey about 12 hours. It is in these road vehicles that the greatest advances have been made, for conditions in England do not justify the railways in expenditure on elaborate equipment. The early road vehicles were insulated boxes on a lorry chassis and were refrigerated by ice and salt, which was “messy” and caused bad corrosion of the chassis. The introduction of an eutectic solution, virtually a mixture of a freezing salt and water in a definite proportion, which was frozen as a whole in a sealed tank, was made some few years ago. This removed the “messiness,” conserved the salt and produced greater efficiency and a more stable temperature.

The ability to gather, store, and make meaning from large amounts of sensor data is becoming a technological and financial reality for cities. Many of these initiatives are happening through deals brokered between vendors, developers, and cities. They are made manifest in the environment as infrastructure – invisible to citizens and communities. We assert that in order to have community-centered smart cities, we need to transform sensor data collection and usage from invisible infrastructure into visible and legible interface. In this chapter, we compare two different urban sensing initiatives and examine the methods used for feedback between sensors and people. We question how value gets produced and communicated to citizens in urban sensing projects and what kind of oversight and ethical considerations are necessary. Finally, we make a case for “seamful” interfaces between communities, sensors, and cities that reveal their inner workings for the purposes of civic pedagogy and dialogue.

This chapter explores the ethical challenges related to the study of children in highly complex and sensitive family circumstances where intimate partner violence has taken place. Drawing on eight months of ethnographic fieldwork at a women’s refuge in Denmark, the author unpacks and discusses three key ethical aspects of conducting research with children: gatekeepers and consent, researcher positionality, and participant confidentiality. These aspects highlight the centrality of trust when undertaking sensitive research with children. In qualitative research, trust is often described as an important aspect of the research process, but research rarely takes into account that trust can vary according to the relationship or research context. What spurred these reflections was questions asked by some of the mothers about what their child had told the author. Examples of this kind illustrate the complex role and positionality of the researcher when seeking to enter and explore the everyday lives of children living in complex family circumstances. Furthermore, the notion of trust brings attention to how different relationships of power – in this case between children and mothers – can influence the research encounter. The chapter concludes with a discussion of children’s own positionality in research about their experiences and life worlds, and calls for researchers to be ethically mindful about how powerful dynamics that emerge during research can support (or hinder) children’s rights as research participants.